Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is a minimally invasive urological procedure that, together with ureteroscopic techniques and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, has revolutionized the traditional open surgical treatment of upper urinary tract stones. Through percutaneous nephrolithotomy, ureteroscopic lithotripsy and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, the majority of kidney stones can be eliminated from open surgery. Indications: 1. All kidney stones requiring open surgical intervention, including complete and incomplete deerstalker stones, ≥2 cm kidney stones, symptomatic calyces or diverticula stones, stones that are difficult to be crushed by extracorporeal shock wave and those that have failed treatment. 2.Ureteral stones with the upper part of the ureter above waist 4, with heavy obstruction or length diameter >1.5cm; or ureteral stones with polyps wrapped and tortuous ureter, ineffective ESWL or failed ureteral placement. 3. Special types of kidney stones, including pediatric kidney stones with obvious obstruction, kidney stones in obese patients, kidney stones with pelvic-ureteral junction obstruction or ureteral stenosis, isolated kidney with stone obstruction, horseshoe kidney with stone obstruction, transplanted kidney with stone obstruction, and kidney stones without effusion, etc.