I. Effects of antenatal depression in mothers 1. Antenatal depression may adversely affect the development of infants and children. 2. Prenatal depression can have adverse effects on pregnancy and neonatal outcomes, 3. It may be associated with cognitive impairment and psychopathology in offspring. II. Effects of prenatal depression on infant and child development Prenatal depression is associated with developmental disorders in infants and children, and most effects appear to be mild to moderate. 1, sudden infant death syndrome: depression during pregnancy may be associated with sudden infant death syndrome. 2. Somatic health: Some studies suggest that children whose mothers are prenatally depressed are more likely to have somatic health problems, such as, asthma, colic, diabetes and/or diarrhea. Other studies have found that children whose mothers have prenatal depression are more likely to have poisoning and burns. 3. Growth: It is unclear how prenatal depression affects the physical growth of infants. Some studies have shown that prenatal depressive symptoms are associated with decreased BMI and increased central obesity in children. 4. Brain structure and function: Prenatal depression in mothers may be associated with structural and functional changes in the brain of their offspring. These changes include reduced structural integrity and continuity of brain fibers, reduced cortical thickness, and increased functional connectivity between structures. Children whose mothers are prenatally depressed have immature and less plastic brains. Effects of prenatal depression on neonatal function – Several prospective observational studies have shown that prenatal depression is associated with impaired neurobehavioral function in newborns. Impaired functions include: 1. habituation: a gradual decrease in response to repetitive auditory and visual stimuli while the newborn is asleep. 2. Motor function: there are signs of stress (e.g., startled jumping, tremors, and an arched back). The infant is more likely to have developmental delays. 3. Sleep: Prenatal depression is associated with neonatal sleep disturbances and other patterns of sleep disturbances, with newborns having longer periods of sleep disturbance and fewer periods of deep sleep. 4, temperament: Several prospective studies conducted by a research group suggest that prenatal depression is associated with a difficult temperament in newborns, with longer periods of irritability and crying in newborns. 5. Attention and arousal: Prenatal depression does not seem to be related to attention and arousal in the offspring. 6. Attachment: Prenatal depression does not appear to be related to attachment (the relationship between the child and caregiver). 7. Behavioral problems: Prenatal depression may be associated with behavioral problems.